Analysis of driver reaction to a pedestrian who crosses the road outside designated crosswalks
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.55329/ztsc4887Keywords:
driver behaviour, driving simulator, eye-tracking, pedestrian jaywalking, perception–reaction time, road safety, Southern EuropeAbstract
Pedestrian who crosses the road outside designated crosswalks represent a critical safety issue in urban environments, as they are often unexpected. Understanding how drivers perceive and respond to such events is essential for improving pedestrian safety and developing effective preventive measures. This study investigates driver perception and reaction processes in safety-critical scenarios involving the sudden appearance of a pedestrian crossing the roadway outside crosswalks, with particular attention to visual detection, reaction time, and evasive behaviour. For this study a controlled experiment was conducted using a driving simulator integrated with an eye-tracking system, allowing the joint collection of vehicle kinematic data and gaze behaviour. Two urban scenarios were designed, differing in the distance at which the pedestrian appeared: one providing sufficient stopping distance for a vehicle approaching at 50 km/h and thus placing 50 km/h speed limits, and a second scenario with a shorter appearance distance consistent with a stopping distance calculated with a speed of 30 km/h, with a 30 km/h speed limit. Driver gaze behaviour, perception time, reaction time, total perception–reaction time, and avoidance strategies were analysed under these conditions. The results confirm that crossings outside crosswalks represent a highly critical scenario, characterised by delayed visual detection, increased variability in driver responses, and a higher likelihood of delayed or ineffective evasive actions. Scenarios characterised by 50 km/h speed limits produced longer and more variable reaction times, whereas tighter spatiotemporal constraints (30 km/h scenario) resulted in faster and more consistent responses. Overall, the study highlights the need for interventions aimed at improving early pedestrian detection and driver awareness, supporting the potential role of infrastructural measures and advanced driver assistance systems in mitigating safety risks in non-designated crossing environments.
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Author Biographies
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Andrea Paliotto, University of Florence
Andrea Paliotto earned his PhD from the University of Florence in 2022, following a degree cum laude in Civil Engineering in 2016. Since 2017, he has served as a research fellow at the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, specializing in road safety and Human Factors. He has actively participated in several high-profile research projects, including PRACT, V4Safety, and CoEXist. A member of the PIARC national committee on road safety since 2018, he has also contributed to international technical activities for safer infrastructure design. He is an author of over 10 scientific papers published in international journals and congresses.
CRediT contribution: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Software, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.
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Costanza Carini, University of Florence
Costanza Carini graduated cum laude in Civil Engineering from the University of Florence in 2024. Her master’s thesis was centered on Floating Car Data and the development of innovative methodologies for the real-time monitoring of road pavements. Since February 2025, she has served as a research assistant within the DICeA research group. She took part in the European project V4Safety, which deals with the virtual evaluation of road safety measures.
CRediT contribution: Data curation, Formal analysis, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft.
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Monica Meocci, University of Florence
Monica Meocci is an Associated Professor at the University of Florence, where she also obtained her PhD in 2013 with a specialization in road safety. Since 2010, she has focused her research and teaching on road, railway, and airport infrastructures, with a particular emphasis on vulnerable road users, safety barriers, and pavement analysis. She is an active member of several national and international PIARC technical committees. With extensive experience in EU-funded projects and standards comparison, she also serves as a reviewer for scientific journals. To date, she has authored more than 30 papers for international conferences and journals.
CRediT contribution: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – review & editing.
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Camilla Mazzi, University of Florence
Camilla Mazzi graduated cum laude in Civil Engineering from the University of Florence in 2024. Her academic work focused on Floating car data: innovative methodologies for real-time monitoring of road pavements, which constituted the core topic of her master’s thesis. Since March 2025, she has been working as a research assistant within the DICeA research group. She is currently involved in a PRIN project (italian nationally relevant research projects), that focuses on how human behaviour changes interacting with automated mobility.
CRediT contribution: Data curation, Formal analysis, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft.
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Francesca La Torre, University of Florence
Francesca La Torre is a Full Professor at the University of Florence and head of the Roads Laboratory. With a PhD from the University of Rome and research experience at the University of Illinois (USA), she is a globally recognized expert in road infrastructure. She holds prominent roles as the Infrastructure Representative for Academia in ERTRAC and as a member of several US Transportation Research Board committees. Since 2005, she has been a voting member of the USA Task Force for the Highway Safety Manual. A prolific researcher, she has led numerous EU-funded projects and authored over 100 scientific publications.
CRediT contribution: Funding acquisition, Project administration, Supervision, Writing – review & editing.
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Alessandro Marradi, University of Florence
Alessandro Marradi is an Associate Professor at the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the University of Florence. His research focuses on transportation engineering and road infrastructure, with particular emphasis on the development of advanced technologies for the design and management of road pavements. He has gained significant experience in technical standardization, participating in national working groups and committees for the development of sector standards and guidelines.
CRediT contribution: Project administration, Writing – review & editing.
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Copyright (c) 2026 Andrea Paliotto, Costanza Carini, Monica Meocci, Camilla Mazzi, Francesca La Torre, Alessandro Marradi
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
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HORIZON EUROPE Climate, Energy and Mobility
Grant numbers grant agreement 101075068
